Archive for October, 2005

The Snorkel

When properly used, the snorkel or breathing tube is a valuable piece of equipment for the skin diver. The device is named after the German submarine which was equipped with a device called the schnorkel which allowed the motors to “breathe” while the ship was submerged. The diver’s snorkel is made of plastic or rubber in a J or S shape, extending from his mouth above the surface of the water while he is swimming. Its main function is to permit the diver to breathe while his face remains in the water. Its use is important when it is desired to keep an underwater object in sight, and it also permits the diver to rest on the surface without exertion. A properly sized snorkel should be about three quarters of an inch in diameter and not more than 14 inches long. The snorkel is usually fitted with an automatic shutoff or float valve to prevent the entrance of water into the tube when the diver submerges. The snorkel is held in the mouth by a molded rubber mouthpiece which should fit easily and evenly, and has a rubber band or strap to hold it in place.

The use of the snorkel is fairly simple. Wearing the face mask and snorkel, all breathing must be done through the mouth. Exhalation through the nose will only be used to equalize the pressure inside the face mask. Before entering the water, the swimmer should practice putting the tube in place and properly adjusting the mouthpiece and head strap. First practice should be in hip-deep water with the face submerged. The one important skill in snorkeling is learning to blow out the snorkel on coming to the surface, in order to clear it of water. The valve should be checked for proper operation each time the snorkel is used.

We have already mentioned the hazards of using a full face mask that covers the mouth. Some snorkels are actually built in as part of a full face-mask unit. This type of equipment is considered hazardous, since it requires an unnatural breathing routine. It may also cause injury from excessive suction which can be extremely painful and cause facial tissue damage. And there is a chance of dangerous carbon-dioxide build-up in the mask or tube. The snorkel in such a full face mask does not make it safe for use.

The Swim Fins

There is a wide variety of swim fins on the market. The most important requirement is that they fit the foot properly. If the fit is a bit too tight the footpiece can be sandpapered down to provide a more comfortable fit; some swimmers use waterproof adhesive tape for a better fit. Generally, rubber fins are preferred to plastic. The latter are less flexible and may crack or break. The fins should be wet when they are put on the feet.

Walking on land with fins is easier than it looks if a high, lifting motion of the leg is used. The water use of fins calls for a flutter kick, though the motion is slower and broader than in nonfin swimming; a climbing or bicycle motion is also effective. Treading water, the frog and scissors kicks should be practiced with the fins. A variety of different kicks should be developed to help avoid cramps and to strengthen leg muscles. First practice with fins in the water should be

Fins, face mask and snorkel have made the sport of “underwater sightseeing” possible.

while holding onto a kick rail or the edge of a dock or pool-side. Flutterboards or surfboards are also good for practice.

The primary purpose of the face mask is to provide clear vision. Without the face mask, distortion would be caused by pressure of water against the eyes. The mask should cover the eyes and nose, never the mouth. While there are many types on the market, the mask should be chosen carefully, with the following points in mind:

The faceplate or window should be of nonshatterable glass. While some masks have plastic windows, these are easily scratched and broken and have a tendency to fog up more quickly than glass. The glass window should be set in a rubber channel with a metal tightening band for secure waterproofing. The mask should be fitted with an adjustable strap, but it should not have to be drawn too tightly ta provide a watertight fit. The mask should fit the contours of the face. Slight leaks around the edge can usually be remedied by sandpapering to provide a snugger fit. A soft rubber mask is generally preferable to one of plastic or hard rubber since it adjusts more easily to facial contours and provides a better seal. The use of goggles as a substitute for the face mask has been found hazardous. They may interfere with the equalization of air pressure; also injury to eye tissue may result, since underwater pressure may squeeze the eyes.

Use of the Face Mask

The proper way to enter water with a mask is feetfirst. A headfirst dive into water with a mask in position over the nose and eyes may force the mask down over the mouth and nose. This can cause a strong suction on surfacing, which the swimmer may be unable to break without help. The suggested method of entering the water is to hold the mask in hand, enter the water, then put the mask in place while treading water.

First, however, the beginner should practice adjusting the mask on dry land. By pressing the mask tightly against the face and breathing in through the nose, you establish suetion which holds the mask in place. By exhaling into the mask, you help equalize the pressure as you descend into the water. First practice in wearing the mask should be in water about hip deep with face above and then below the water. The inside of the mask window will have a tendency to fog. Perhaps the most practical way of antifogging it is by moistening the inside, then rubbing it with saliva. There are also a number of antifogging cloths available which may work, and some divers use glycerine or other chemicals, or retain a small amount of water in the mask to rinse it.

TECHNICALLY, the term skin diving refers to subsurface swimming in which a face mask is used for clear vision and swim fins or flippers for propulsion. The “snorkel” or breathing tube is an optional piece of equipment. The snorkel usually has an automatic shutoff valve, providing the surface floater or diver with a means of breathing without having to turn his head. Some skin divers also use a “weight belt.” This is a standard 2-inch belt fitted with a quick-release buckle to which lead weights are affixed to provide negative buoyancy under water.

In the past few years skin diving has become one of the most widely publicized water activities. Manufacturers have been offering many types of diving equipment, and practically every sporting goods store features it in windows and interior displays. At the same time, popular magazines have been carrying exciting articles about the thrills of underwater exploration. The resultant boom in the sale of skin-diving equipment has had its grim side. As is the case in any sport that possesses a degree of danger, the untrained and the physically unfit who participate are risking injury and even death, and the use of this equipment by very young children is especially hazardous, despite the fact that many toy counters carry skin-diving equipment in sizes to fit the smallest child.

In some areas legislation has been adopted prohibiting the use of various kinds of skin-diving equipment. Silver Springs, Florida, for example has a blanket prohibition against skin diving except for sanctioned exhibitions, and many beach areas have set aside skin-diving areas or have forbidden the sport. There have also been many reports of accidents where children have been using the equipment in the family pool without adult supervision. The Y.M.C.A. and the Boy Scouts of America have been concerned with the problem of the unskilled and unfit skin diver.

General physical fitness is required for skin diving. No one with any unfavorable condition of eyes, ear, nose or throat should undertake it. A perfect respiratory system, clear nasal passages and Eustachian tube with no sinusitis, ear infection, or eardrum imperfection are the basic requirements, because of the water pressure when diving or swimming under water. Earplugs should not be used to compensate for any ear condition, since they may interfere with the adjustment of pressure and prevent the normal functioning of the eardrum as an alarm signal which indicates the lack of adjustment to pressure.

As to necessary swimming skills, the following water ability (without the use of fins, mask or snorkel) is suggested by the Young Men’s Christian Association as the minimum for anyone contemplating skin diving:

1. Tread water (no hands) for 3 minutes
2. In continuous movement swim 300 yards
3. Tow an inert swimmer 40 yards
4. Float motionless 10 minutes
5. Swim 50 feet under water without push-off

A hollow or balsa-wood board will have a buoyancy of about 60 pounds. The construction of a hollow aquaplane is somewhat similar to that of the surf paddle board described on Page 134. It consists of a frame made of 1- by 2-inch strips of cedar, spruce, or white pine shaped around cross ribs to a conventional boat shape. The frame strips should be rabbeted on upper and lower inner edges to take a one-half-inch marine plywood covering top and bottom. The edge strips and rear rib are of uniform depth, 2 inches. The 3 intermediate ribs are flat on top and flush with the lower surface of the rabbet in the frame. The lower surface of the intermediate ribs, however, is dropped to make the board deeper in the center, and deepest at a point about 8 inches back from the nose. The aquaplane should be 2 inches thick around the edges, but 2 inches thick at the center of the forward rib, 18 inches from the nose.

The other 2 intermediate ribs are 2 and 2 inches deep. Since the board will probably leak slightly, each of the ribs should be notched or provided with limber holes so that the water may be drained from a corked hole in the rear rib.

After the frame has been assembled, the deck is fitted to the rabbet and set up in marine glue or white lead with 1-inch brass screws (No. 6) spaced 2 inches apart. The board should then be clamped, top down, to a flat surface to prevent warping while the bottom is affixed to the curved ribs. The inner surface of the aquaplane should be primed with white lead before assembly, to limit the absorption of water.

After construction, the entire board may be given a coat of marine paint or varnish, and the edges may be painted a contrasting color.

For hardware, 2 cast-brass screen-door handles are fastened to the upper edge at the ends of the forward rib, for a one-half or three-quarter inch rope pull-off bridle to which the tow rope is attached. A three-quarter inch rope, for hand hold, should be spliced to the handles.

The sport of aquaplaning was introduced into the United States around 1919. Visitors to Hawaii had observed surfboards being towed behind powerboats to provide sport when the waves were not right for surfing, and the increasing number of powerboats in America gave some impetus to this new water activity. The first American-made aquaplanes were simply wooden platforms about 5 feet long and 2 feet wide. They were made very simply. Two or three ordinary boards were cut to size and fastened by 3 cross boards. The cross cleats were placed on the upper side of the plane. The two lines and bridle were affixed to holes cut in the front corners of the boards.

In its heyday the aquaplane provided many exciting water scenes for motion-picture news cameras. Among the leading aquaplaners were the Pope brothers, Dick and Malcolm, who later developed Cypress Gardens in Florida as a water-sports center. Tandem riding, cross rides, shoulder carries and other variations of the basic ride, provided vicarious thrills and goals for amateur aquaplaners. One of the more spectacular stunts was a transfer from riding an aquaplane to a sky kite pulled by another boat, and an air-borne trip before a fast drop into the water.

By the late 20’s, faster boats were available to the aqua-planer and the equipment became more sophisticated. Some of the boards were built like toboggans, with an upraised

front edge. It was found that a narrower board, 20 to 24 inches wide with a pointed nose and a tapered design, reduced drag and gave better stability and maneuverability.
The “jump” was added to the common aquaplane stunts. By inclining the board upward acutely, “kicking” the board, and pulling up sharply on the bridle, the better-designed boards could be jumped clear out of the water. At about 20 miles an hour, a properly designed aquaplane will “plane,” skimming the water with just enough “nose-up” to prevent cutting into the waves. The more modern aquaplaner moved his position toward the rear of the board, with his feet about 18 inches from the tail of the board.

Aquaplaning

Some of the thrills of water skiing and saucering can be found in aquaplaning. Riding the wake of a powerboat on an aquaplane requires a bit less skill than water skiing or saucering because the aquaplane is towed by the boat and the rider supports himself and maneuvers while holding onto a bridle or “reins” attached to the forepart of the plane.

The basic technique of aquaplaning is fairly simple. As the boat starts off slowly, the board lies flat on the water. With the boat still moving slowly, the swimmer comes to the rear of the board and draws himself up on it. He lies flat on the board, grasping it on either side near the front. As the boat picks up speed, the prow of the board rises somewhat above the water. At this point the rider rises first to a kneeling, then to a standing position, holding the bridle rope.

Following the sequence in this set of photos of trick doubles water skiing may make it seem almost easy. But even the finale, with the girl riding in the man’s arms, calls for a high degree of skill.
In the terminology of water skiing, a trick such as this is called a “carry.” While it is most graceful, it can be quite dangerous at high speed or in choppy water.

The feet should be set wide apart for balance. At a boat speed of about 20 miles an hour, the aquaplane provides a rocky, splashing ride, with some opportunity for aquabatics. By pressing down on the left foot and pulling up on the right-hand rope, the board may be made to skid to the right. Reversing this action will skid the board to the left.

Mixed doubles

Each team of partners in the mixed doubles is allowed exactly 5 consecutive minutes to perform in any manner desired, and everything occurring during the 5 minutes is scored.

Each skier must enter the course riding one or 2 skis, towed behind one or two boats, but then may change to any type of equipment, including nonstandard ropes and handles, shoe skis, saucers, bare feet, etc. The only equipment restrictions are safety requirements.

Three minutes’ preparation is allowed outside the course for a warm-up. Falls do not disqualify, but are charged against the time. The event is scored by 5 judges, and usually one judge is a nonskier, since the event is intended primarily for spectator appeal.

The scoring is planned to encourage contestants to go beyond the trick riding events in working out their routines, and is as follows:

ORIGINALITY-10 points: Costuming and suitability to the routine; adaptation of the routine to a story line, new or original tricks; logical and efficient order in tricks.

VARIETY-10 points for using tricks in different categories: Side-by-side tricks; ramp tricks; lifts; change-of-relative-position tricks; novel methods of towing.

SPECTATOR APPEAL-10 points: Applause or laughter during the act and at completion of act.

FORM-20 points: Co-operation in performing tricks; graceful appearance of both skiers; precision or sameness in side-by-side tricks; sense of rhythm and timing on the program. (In story line or comedy routines good form may well be bad form.)
CONTENT-50 points: Difficulty of tricks; flow of tricks, as opposed to actual number of tricks.

Trick riding

In trick riding, each contestant is allowed 40 seconds 2 20-second passes through the 200-yard trick course-during

The heel tow is one of the standard water-ski tricks. The handle is placed behind the ankle, then released slowly as the strain of the tow rope is taken up the ankle.

which he may perform as many tricks as he desires. The course is set up with 2 standard jumping ramps 75 yards from each end of the course.

A list of the proposed tricks to be attempted is required from each contestant; however, deviations from the list are not penalized. The skier is generally given credit for what he does, even though he may be attempting another trick or tricks. Five judges score trick riding, observing and scoring independently. Each judge lists each trick and decides whether it was performed according to the rules and completed within the time limit, and the form deduction, if any. In addition to trick scores, a contestant may receive a 10 per cent score bonus for “ride-out” if he does not fall in the course.

The tricks which are allowable fall into 4 categories: water surface turns, wake jump runs, miscellaneous water tricks, and ramp tricks.

The Official Tournament Rules, available from the AWSA, Winter Haven, Florida, describe the tricks in detail and the scores for each trick which range from 20 points for a l -second sideslide to 570 points for a one-ski somersault on the ramp.

NEOPHYTE TRICKS

Neophyte tricks are not allowed in sanctioned tournaments, but are used in local competition and in beginners’ classes. They follow, with their point values:

SKIS TRICK
1 Ride backward double handles in swan position 22 POINTS
1 Backward knee hold 21 POINTS
1 Ride backward 3 seconds 18 POINTS
Extra for crossing wake and return 10 POINTS
2 Deep water back start (must ski for 3 seconds) 1 6 POINT
2 Take off ski, place on water with hand in binding, rope on toe or heel 15 POINTS
2 From position above, with handin binding, eturn to 2 skis, rope in hand 15 POINTS
2 Ride backward, cross wake and return 14 POINTS
1 Rope on toe 13 POINTS
1 Backward knee hold 13 POINTS
1 Rope on heel 12 POINTS
1 Rope between knees 11 POINTS
1 Deep water start 10 POINTS
1 Forward swan* 9 POINT
1 Jump clear of water over wake 9 POINT
1 Cross wake and return 8 POINT
2 Jump clear of water over wake 6 POINT
2 Skier’s salute 4 POINT
2 Rope between knees 3 POINT

* In the “swan,” rope is put on toe, leg extended, and arms extended out to sides.

The slalom event

In the slalom the contestant follows the tow boat through the entrance gate of the slalom course, passes around the outside of any or all 6 buoys at his discretion, and proceeds through the far end gate making a “pass.” He then makes a turn and returns through the course in similar fashion. If he has not missed any buoys or gates at the completion of his second pass, he is allowed a third and fourth pass without a stop, with the boat speed increased 2 miles per hour each trip through the course to complete the run. The first run consists of a maximum of 4 passes; all following runs of 2 passes. The use of one or 2 skis is optional.

It is a “miss” to ride inside a buoy or outside a gate, to ride over or straddle a buoy or gate, but there is no penalty for grazing a buoy with a ski or any part of the body. A buoy not missed is scored when the skier has returned within the wake before passing the end gate without falling. A gate not missed is scored when the skier has passed through the gate without falling. Only one buoy is scored for each return to within the wake.

A fall in the course or outside the course while the tow boat is turning around for the return pass concludes a run at that point. However, the contestant receives credit for buoys scored before the fall. Once the skier has entered the first gate on any run, he must complete that run. One point is earned for each gate or buoy scored in succession without a miss.

Judging of the slalom is intricate. A judge rides in the boat, and 2 additional judges observe from the slalom tower to judge the buoys scored. At the conclusion of every skier’s run, the boat judge signals his score to the tower judges, and any disagreement is settled by majority vote before the next contestant starts. In addition, a referee rides in the boat to check speeds, and the boat is also timed by a stop watch on each pass. Where slower than allowable, a rerun is required; where faster, a rerun is at the contestant’s option.

Falling

A ‘”fall” is registered against a contestant in any event when: a) he loses possession of the tow line (the one exception is when he throws the handle in the air before entering a course to signal that he is not making that run) ; b) if he does not have at least one ski on one foot; c) if his weight is not primarily supported by his ski or skis, and in addition the skier is unable ultimately to regain skiing position.

“Skiing position” is defined in the rules as “that position in which all of the following exist: a) the skier has possession of the tow line; b) the skier is riding forward or backward with a ski or skis on his feet; and c) the skier is entirely supported by his ski or skis and is in good balance.”

Jumping

In the jumping event, each contestant is allowed 3 jumps over the official jumping ramp. This structure must meet the following specifications: width, 12 to 14 feet; 20 to 22 feet out of the water; 6 feet high at take-off point for men’s division-5 feet for all other divisions. The surface of the ramp is kept wet during competition by watering equipment or a water boy.

A jump is scored when the skier passes over the ramp, lands, and skis to the ride-out buoy without falling. However, if he purposely touches any part of the tow other than the handle while in the air, he receives no score for that jump. The jumper directs the boat driver which side, at what distance, and at what speed not in excess of the maximum listed above-to pass the ramp, and the boat is required to follow a straight path parallel to the side of the ramp. Distances are scored from the center of the top edge of the ramp to the point where the heels of the skier landed. This distance is communicated to the skier after each jump.

Judges score each jump for form, starting with 10 points, deducting up to one point for the approach and the ride up the ramp, up to 4 points for the time in the air, and up to 5 points for the landing. Form points are awarded on the basis of one-half-point intervals. Judges penalize for: loss of balance or control; skis not parallel or one above the other; any part of the body touching the water on landing; one ski touching the water sooner than the other; waving free arm or other erratic movements; lurching forward on landing as slack is taken up; sitting on skis at take-off point; and other factors at the judges’ discretion. Generally speaking, good form is considered that which permits a skier to obtain the greatest distance while maintaining complete control over body and skis at all times.

Form scores are added to the distance of the jump in feet to obtain the score for the jump. In case of a tie, the skier who had the longest single jump distance on any jump is the winner. If a tie still exists, a run-off is called, for two jumps.