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The Backstroke

The backstroke is a “sometime thing” in water polo. It is used mainly when a player, swimming rapidly wants to observe the action of the game. While swimming the crawl, he simply turns over and continues swimming backstroke without losing his forward speed.

Proponents of the “scientific” approach to water polo say that while this stroke may not be used very often, it should be practiced with emphasis on holding the head up. As an exercise, using the backstroke is said to develop all-around mobility in the water, and it utilizes groups of muscles which are used less in other swimming strokes although they are used in play during the game.

Treading Water

Treading water is the technique of keeping the body in a vertical position in the water and is a useful resting and starting position. With the body held vertically, the legs perform a motion which is a combination of the leg movements used in breaststroke and sidestroke. The legs in treading do not move together, but successively, which gives this exercise its name. By closing the legs together quickly, the player can rise high out of the water. While treading, the hands perform a fanlike motion close to the hips. In rising out of the water, the hands can help by exerting a downward pressure. While treading water, the player can practice holding and passing the ball, using one and both hands.

Dribbling

Dribbling-changing of position with the ball-is among the most important maneuvers in water polo. It is used in escaping from an opponent, in getting into scoring position, in moving the ball around in the field of play. The technique of moving the 27-inch-circumference ball around is based on the crawl stroke described earlier in this chapter. To hold possession of the ball, even when moving at top speed, the player’s body must be kept high in the water and his head and upper body well above the surface.

The objective in dribbling is to move the ball along about 4 to 8 inches in front of the head, on top of the wave created by the raised head and chest. With the proper water-polo crawl, the arms are bent inward at the elbow, speeding up the recovery portion of the stroke. Also, should the ball slide to the side, it may be controlled by the bent arms; the arms come alongside the ball at shorter intervals, and when necessary the ball may be grasped quickly.

Team Play

In many water-polo games, even in international and Olympic competition, the object of the game appears to be to get the player with the ball and hold him under water until loss of breath requires him to relinquish it, also to “dunk” an opponent frequently and for long enough periods, to impair his playing efficiency. Wrestling, holding, and other underwater forms of mayhem, are considered acceptable in many water-polo circles as long as they are not observable by the officials above the surface of the water.

In the early stages of water polo, the ball was thrown from one goal toward the other with no specific plan. Every player would swim toward the spot where the ball landed and strive for possession. Passing was done with rigidly outstretched arms, which made control difficult. In the modern “scientific” game, it was found that instead of long and random throws it was more effective to swim with the ball toward the opponent’s goal and ‘”shoot” for goals from shorter distances. Swimming with the ball, dribbling, and improved ball handling led to team techniques resembling those of basketball, with the ball often being passed to a swimming teammate and more “air” play of the ball.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

In European methods of training for water polo, a sharp distinction is made between the type of swimming used in competition and in water polo. The progress of a competitive swimmer in the water is continuous, with emphasis on speed and endurance for longer events. The water-polo

This is a relatively calm moment in a water-polo game, with competing players both above water and concentrating on the ball.

player’s swimming is varied in intensity and interrupted by the progress of the plays in the game. Also, the game calls for the player to hold his head high, in order to follow the progress of the ball and the game. In addition, the competitive swimmer need perfect only one stroke, while the competent water-polo player must be equally skilled in all the strokes and techniques he may need during the same. The “purists” of the sport decry the practice of many coaches of selecting aspirants who prove limited in competitive skill to form a water-polo team for a club or school. The strokes necessary in water polo are the crawl, side-stroke, breaststroke and backstroke, although the various strokes must be adapted to the specific needs of the player during a game.

The Crawl

The crawl stroke is used during the greater part of the game, for it is the stroke used by a player in changing his position within the playing area. Since the swimmer must keep his head high to observe the game and the other players, his head must be held up. With the head held up, the legs will sink deeper than in competitive swimming. This changes the position of the body in the water. The higher angle of the body makes the legstroke more difficult. To compensate for this, the legs must be bent more at the knees to bring the feet nearer to the surface.

The armstroke must also be adapted to the needs of the game. In order to give support to the raised head and shoulders, the recovery stroke must be shortened. This is done by bending the elbows slightly so that the hands reach the water more quickly, producing a more forceful arm-stroke. Swimming with the arms slightly bent is also necessary when dribbling the ball along the surface of the water.

The Sidestroke

For maneuverability during plays and for quick turns, the sidestroke is important in water polo. However, this stroke as used in water polo differs from the competitive sidestroke. It is a modified sidestroke with emphasis on the powerful scissors kick. The armstroke is also changed, with the elbow of the arm moving in the air being sharply bent, giving an accelerated armstroke. The body is turned high on its side, with the eyes looking to the side. The legs are submerged just enough to provide support for the scissors kick. This half-side body position changes when one of the arms swings forward during recovery. Then the body is turned on the chest so that the raised head looks ahead. With the body in this position, the player sinks the arm that is swung forward into the water, and a forceful pull occurs simultaneously with the closing of the legs, pushing the body forward. When the pull begins, the body is turned again on the side to reduce water resistance. During the pull, the other arm reaches forward under the water, so that when one arm, completing the pull, swings back into the air, the other arm provides a continuous glide with an oarlike motion toward the breast. The player should develop facility in using the sidestroke on both sides to meet the needs of the game.

The Breaststroke

During much of the action in a game, the player must rise high out of the water as in throwing or receiving passes, shooting goals, attempting interceptions. The goalkeeper must especially be ready to “jump” out of the water to defend his goal. For these situations, the breaststroke is advocated. Again, the stroke differs from its namesake used in competitive swimming. Here, emphasis is on the upward effect of the kick, and not on the forward propulsion of the stroke. The normal breaststroke calls for an almost flat position in the water. The water-polo player using the breaststroke forms an angle of 40 to 60 degrees with the surface. The pull which provides forward momentum is reduced to a bare minimum, and the press, which lifts the upper potrion of the body, is increased to the maximum.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

In American collegiate circles and among some water-sports clubs, the Softball form of water polo has become popular-although many foreign critics of this particular game describe it as underwater mayhem. In the Softball variety the goals are smaller, a much smaller ball is used, and the ball is flexible enough to be grasped by the fingers. All types of rough play are permitted, with choking, butting, tackling and holding opponents under the water all being acceptable tactics.

In the United States water polo has never become a widely popular participant sport. One limiting factor is that it is a game in which only expert swimmers take an interest, and it is a tiring activity, even for good swimmers who are not in top physical condition. It is most popular among those who have passed the peak of their competitive swimming careers, yet who wish to participate in an active water sport. Probably for this reason, and because play in the game is intricate and difficult, most championship teams include men who are from 35 to 40 years old.

Another factor that has limited the spread of water polo is that in most places playing facilities are inadequate. The standard outdoor water-polo court is about 20 yards by 30 yards, and indoors the rules call for an area of 20 feet and 19 yards. Many pools are not large enough to provide the proper playing area, and to have 14 swimmers competing for the ball in limited space is not conducive to good play. In addition, many pools large enough for the sport have a shallow end, which spoils the game.

Water Polo Competition

While a number of schools and colleges engage in water-polo matches, the Olympic competition and the national championships recognized by the American Athletic Union have been dominated by the athletic clubs. The New York Athletic Club and the Illinois Athletic Club have been among the top teams since the early 1900′s. In the past few years, the sport has been spreading on the West Coast. With general acceptance of the “hard ball” and closer supervision of games by officials, the sport is expected to grow in popularity among players and spectators.

The official rules of water-polo competition may be found in the Official Swimming Handbook of the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States available from the A.A.U., 233 Broadway, New York 7, New York, for $1.50.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

During the decade of the 1890′s, the game of water polo spread widely. Irish teams joined the British and Scottish teams. In America the rules were changed to make the game more practical in smaller, covered pools. In the American game the goal was scored by touching a mark painted on the wall, not by throwing for a goal. Water polo also spread to Germany, Austria and Hungary, where international competition was held. It also became popular in Australia, and soon spread to Russia.

During the 1950′s, changes in the rules made the game faster and more colorful by eliminating the many stops and actionless periods caused by the old rules. In 1950, the International Water Polo Board, the recognized rule-drafting organization, adopted what are basically today’s rules for the game.

Modern Rules

The modern game of water polo, which adopted many of the innovations introduced in the United States’ form of the game, is played in a pool-or pool area-not more than 20 feet in width, and not less than 19 yards long. At either end of the playing area, goals 3 feet high and 10 feet wide, backed with netting, are set at water level. The teams are made up of seven members on each side, one of whom is the goalkeeper. Team members are identified by the colors of their bathing caps and by numerals on the caps identifying the players and their positions on the team; goalkeeper, leftback, rightback, halfback, left forward, center forward and right forward.

In the formal game, called “hard-ball” water polo, an inflated ball 27 inches in circumference is used. The ball is tossed into the center of the playing area, and contestants fight for possession of it. The ball may be advanced toward the goal by batting it with the body, “dribbling,” or by balancing it in one hand. The object of the game is to score goals by hitting the ball through the net defended by the opposing side, using the head, feet or hands. At least 2 players must touch a ball before a goal may be scored.

The game is divided into 4 5-minute periods. Fouls such as carrying the ball under water or with two hands, tackling, bumping, etc. are called by a referee from outside the pool, and the penalty is an award of free throws to the opposing team.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

THE present game of water polo and the various similar water games which preceded it came about as a result of the building of indoor swimming pools. Among the first of these were the “swimming baths” opened in 1820 in Paris which were restricted to use by women. Soon swimming pools were found in many places on the Continent and were growing more popular in England and Scotland. Efforts to relieve the monotony of swimming competition events led to the development of a water game which absorbed many of the elements of soccer and hockey.

Origins

In its first form, the game of “water soccer” was played at different pools under what would be considered “local” rules. In 1870, a committee of British swimming experts met to formalize rules for water soccer. After several years of confusion about the game, the Bournemouth Rowing Club staged what was probably the first formal water-polo match in 1876. With 7 members to a team, the game was played within a marked-off area under control of a referee and 2 goal judges. A goal was scored by placing the ball on a raft at the end of the playing area. However, contemporary reports indicate that this game was never completed, as the rubber ball which was used burst and brought all action to a halt.

The first set of recognized rules for the game of water polo were prepared by a Scotsman named Wilson in Glasgow in the late 187O’s. By 1880, series of matches were being played among British and Scottish teams, although Wilson’s rules received varying interpretations at different pools. Finally in 1885, the English Swimming Association officially recognized water polo as a separate branch of aquatic sport and ordered the universal acceptance of the rules which it adopted. The 1885 rules consisted of 11 points:

1. Duration of game-20 minutes.
2. Captains to agree or toss for choice of goals.
3. At start of play, referee throws ball into center of course. All players then enter water immediately except the 2 goalkeepers. Goalkeepers may remain out of water and defend goal as they think best.
4. Ball may be passed from one player to another, and carried either on or below the surface of the water to goal.
5. No player may interfere with goalkeeper either in or out of the water, or hold opponents in any way, unless goalkeeper or opponent is in possession of ball. In case of violation of this rule, a free throw is given to opposing team from place where foul occurred.
6. A goal is obtained by ball being taken up by hand and placed fairly on floating stage or boat provided for that purpose.
7. If ball goes “offside” during play, the referee must immediately return it to play; if it goes out over or on floating stage or boat, it must immediately be taken up and thrown into play by goalkeeper on the stage or boat.
8. Umpires, or one of them, shall blow whistle immediately after a goal has been scored, and play shall stop at that moment.
9. Teams shall change goals at half time.
10. Any competitor who withdraws from a match or fails to participate in a match for which he has been engaged, forfeits all prizes he may have already won at this meeting, as well as any he may afterwards become entitled to in connection with the same match.
11. Power is given to umpires, or in case of their disagreement to referee, to decide all circumstances not provided for by these rules.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

Individuals differ widely in their tolerance of pressure on head, ears and sinuses. Anyone who may be sensitive to pressure should first try shallow dives to establish his tolerance level; and those with high sensitivity to pressure should not dive. Some people may be able to correct this condition by learning compensation breath control without actually blowing out. The use of earplugs, noseclips, etc. as “crutches” should be discouraged.

The possibility of accident may seem rather remote to the beginning diver. However, it is most important that proper diving habits be established from the start in takeoff, balance, control in the air, entry and hitting bottom. As the diver continues, he dives with more height and cleaner entries and hits both surface and bottom with greater force, making proper techniques a must for his personal safety.

Execution of Dives

In competition, dives are judged on the following principles, which are taken from the regulations of the Amateur Athletic Union:

The approach to the starting position is not taken into consideration; the starting position must be free and unaffected. The starting position in standing dives is assumed when the diver stands on the front end of the board, straight, head erect, feet together, arms up and stretched straight forward level with and the width of the shoulders apart, the fingers together. The forward approach must be smooth, straight and forceful, and must comprise not less than three steps before the hurdle. The “hurdle” is the jump to the end of the board following the last step of the run when both feet must contact the end of the board simultaneously.

The take-off should be forceful, reasonably confident, and should proceed without undue delay. In running dives, the take-off from the springboard must be from both feet simultaneously immediately following the hurdle. A diver is entitled to his own method of arm swing on back take-offs, but must not lift his feet from the board before the take-off. When executing a backward dive, a diver must not bounce on the board or rock the board excessively before the take-off.

During the passage through the air, the body can be carried “straight,” with a “pike,” or with “tuck.”

In the first case, the body must not be bent either at the knees or at the hips, the arms must be straight, the feet together and toes pointed.

With the pike, the body is bent at the hips, but the legs must be kept straight at the knees, toes pointed. The pike should be as compact as possible.

In the tuck, the whole body is bunched up with knees together, toes pointed. The tuck should be as compact as possible.

The position of the arms is at the choice of the diver, except in the case of the plain header forward (front dive), where the arms must be stretched out sideways in line with the shoulders during the flight through the air.

In dives with twists, the twisting must not be done directly from the board. In all pike dives with twists, the twist must not be started until there has been a marked pike position.

In somersaults with tuck (other than flying somersaults) the turn must commence as soon as the diver leaves the board, but in flying somersault dives there must be a well-defined header for approximately half a somersault, with the somersault made as rapidly as possible.

In the reverse dive half twist and somersault, and reverse dive half twist and one and a half somersault, the twisting may begin immediately after leaving the board, but the somersaults may not begin until the twist in the layout position has been completed. This rule also applies to the back one an a half somersault one and a half twist.

Entry into the water must in all cases be vertical or nearly so, with the body straight, toes pointed. All headfirst entries must be performed with the arms stretched. In all feetfirst entries the arms should be close to the body, with no bending at the elbows.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

Every summer, newspapers report diving accidents and fatalities occurring during dives. However, experts in aquatic sports feel that practically all diving accidents can be avoided if the sport is approached with a modicum of common sense. Analysis of diving indicates that there are 3 points at which a diver faces the possibility of injury: 1) striking the board as he passes it; 2) impact on the surface of the water; 3) contact with the bottom of the pool or diving area.

If the diver keeps visually aware of the board tip, he can minimize the possibility of striking it with his body. Even in the hurdle, the tip can be observed with peripheral vision. Many beginners seem to make the mistake of looking straight ahead, which makes it difficult for them to be accurate in landing or balancing. Beginners should take their first board jumps under the supervision of a qualified instructor. A smooth, controlled walk on the board, with the weight carried quickly from heel to ball of foot should provide a proper take-off. Heavy pounding on the heels and lack of transfer of weight forward, jerkiness, distortion of body position, and speed variation in steps, are all practices which may result in the driver’s striking the board. They may cause a too vertical rise or an actual cutback which brings the diver’s body too close to the tip of the board.

Injuries from impact with the surface of the water are often the results of a diver’s overestimating his ability. Divers should be restrained from using boards higher than the one-meter board until they are proficient at the low board. A shallow or flat entry from a low board may cause minor contusions, some physical discomfort and possibly loss of breath. From a higher board, injuries may be more severe-for example, broken blood vessels, black eyes and bloody noses, and possible vertebral injury. Back, neck and shoulder injuries may result from the type of water entry in which one part of the body is stopped by the impact with the surface and the other continues in the direction of rotation. This may be caused by leaning too far forward on take-off, or lack of body tension in flight, and also by a strong effort to correct a dive which is going over by an overpull in the opposite direction.

Underwater recovery is important as a safety factor. The diver must hold his position, since relaxing tension too soon, rising to the surface before the momentum of the dive is spent, or landing on the bottom, may cause injuries similar to the strains imposed by an entry impact. An observer should watch the beginning diver’s underwater position. Should his arms separate widely under water or drop beneath the body, the head is vulnerable to striking the bottom. The landing impact must be controlled by the arms and shoulders beneath the total body weight, or by the feet and legs in case of feetfirst entry.

In natural water diving, perhaps the most frequent cause of accident is unfamiliarity with the water depth or the

Proper standing take-offs and water entries

1. Starting position for all standing forward dives
2. Starting position for oil back dives
3. Body and limb position for straight up and down entry all reverse dives with body straight, or double reverse with tuck or pike, requiring this entry.
4. Proper position of head, arms and legs, on all back dives requiring feetfirst entry.
5. Proper position of head, arms and legs, on all forward dives calling for a feetfirst entry.
6. Proper position of head, arms and legs, for all back dives calling for a head first entry.
7. The straight up and down entry, correct when making inward dive or inward 1 somersault.
8. Proper position of arms, head and legs on forward dives calling for a headfirst entry.

existence of rocks and other dangerous debris at the bottom. A commonsense approach would rule out diving in unfamiliar water before the bottom has been carefully explored.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

Competitive diving, technically called “springboard” diving, is one of the most demanding of water sports. Diving meets are usually conducted under the rules of the Amateur Union of the United States and its various member associations, and are practically the same as the rules which govern Olympic competition. In formal meets, divers are required to perform 5 required dives: forward, back, reverse, inward, and front dive one-half twist; and 5 voluntary dives from among accepted competitive dives.

Each dive is scored on a rather complicated basis, with different dives being given different ratings according to a “difficulty ratings” table, and the diver being scored by his nearness to perfection in each of his 10 dives. When judging a dive, only the dive is considered, without regard to the approach to the starting position. The points to be considered by the judges are: the run; the take-off; technique and grace of the dive during the passage through the air; entry into the water. Judges do not consider or score a diver’s actions beneath the surface of the water.

Points for each dive are awarded on the basis of 10 to 0, according to the opinion of the judges, using a half-point scale, as follows:

There is no short cut to skill in diving. Proficiency can come only after continual practice under competent instruction, and diving requires good physical condition and an innate sense of timing and balance. However, recreational diving as distinguished from competitive, can be enjoyed by almost every person with some degree of swimming ability, and even by those with just enough swimming ability to get from the center of the pool to the side.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming

Acrobat dive-The comic possibilities of one acrobat trying to mount to a standing position on his partner’s shoulders are well known to everyone who has seen circus gymnasts, vaudeville comic acrobats, or watched such performers on TV. Divers attempting this one should practice and work out details on land before trying it on end of board. General build-up routine usually includes the “slippery knee,” “foot in pants” and “foot caught in rear.” Once the top man is up and standing on partner’s shoulders, possibilities are again numerous. Dive is often unexpectedly completed because of lack of balance.

Top-pitch dive-Another dive involving some gymnastic ability and preliminary practice on land. First partner takes a back-dive position on end of board with hands cupped in front of waist ready to catch a foot of second diver who approaches, places a foot in partner’s cupped hands, and hands on partner’s shoulders. Second man springs up off one leg as first man lifts and throws him over his head into water. (Sometimes called a Leg Throw Dive.)

Rope dive-Requires a third “character” to “assist” or “judge” the contest between two clowns of about same size and weight. Two partners face each other standing sideways at end of board and holding a 3- to 5-foot length of rope between them. With toes on board and heels off side of board, each begins to lean backward (bodies held rigid) holding rope taut between them. They maintain balance and let out rope slowly, so that their bodies are leaning out a bit farther.
The contest is announced as a “tie” when third “character” quickly cuts rope with knife or sharp scissors which he kept concealed from contestants. Of course, when rope is cut, contestants both fall off sideward.

Back handspring dive-First man lies on back (looking at partner) at end of board, knees flexed (bent upward) and feet on board. Second man approaches, placing hands on partner’s knees. Partner catches shoulders in his hands. A slight push aids in forward momentum and carries second man around somersault or handspring over partner and off end of board for a feetfirst entry. Second man can try for a one-and-a-half somersault in the air, and may make it. Partners on board can follow almost immediately with “Neck Dive.”

Safety in Comedy Dives

The safety factor should never be overlooked for any person who attempts to develop clown divers. Forgetting about safety in attempting to bring a diver along too rapidly would only expose the performer to unnecessary danger and possible serious injury. Conversely, the learner who sticks to fundamentals and the easier comedy dives until he has complete control in approaches, hurdles and body control in the air, will have less trouble when the time comes to try difficult dives. Logically, it is far better to have a diver learn how to do the various regular dives (front, back, twisting, somersault, gainer) first. In doing so, good approaches, hurdles, body control in air, and entries will have been mastered, and the clown antics in similar dives will come much easier.

The performance in a camp, public pool, or home pool show include only the comedy dives that are geared to the safe performance levels of the divers.

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Here again, as with the single or individual comedy dives, there are numerous clown antics which can be performed. Basically, of course, the variety and difficulty of such dives also depends on the skill and daring of the “characters.” Following is a list and brief description of some of the more popular partner comedy dives or stunts:

Leap frog dive-One partner walks out to end of board, bends over to “size up” the situation. Second partner approaches low hurdle and does a straddle vault (hands on partner’s back) over first partner.

Over the back dive-First partner makes a nervous, shaky, crawling (on hands and knees) approach to end of board. Touches top, sides, underside of board. Announcer asks what he is doing. Reply is, “All good divers have to get the feel of the board.” In doing so, he remains on his hands and knees while second partner makes approach, springs and dives over him. Bouncing board causes first diver to fall off board.

Bargain basement-A good dive when “characters” are dressed as women and props include several cardboard boxes, etc. First partner starts approach, trips and falls on stomach as boxes are tossed into the air. Second “shopper” makes a fast walking approach (holding packages or boxes in such a way as to give the impression that his view is obstructed). He walks right over partner’s back, off the board, and continues walking motion during downward flight.

Wheelbarrow dive-Partners assume same positions as for “Wheelbarrow” race on land, then move forward off end of board with rear partner keeping hold of “wheel’s” ankles.

Siamese twin dive-Both partners stand side by side at back end of board, inside arms around each others waists. Both make the approach, hurdle, and dive in unison.

Rolling somersault dive-One partner lies on back, head toward rear of board, legs extended upward, hands grasping ankles of partner who straddles the “bottom” man. “Top” man starts a forward roll toward end of board, pulling bottom man up to a standing position, and so on until “top” man is able to make a front dive off board with “bottom” man following, still holding partner’s ankles.

Horse and rider dive-One of the most common performed by clown divers.
The “rider” makes an approach, hurdle, and high vertical jump with legs spread wide apart. The “horse” has followed close behind and dives into a horizontal position between legs of “rider.” The effectiveness of this dive can be greatly increased if the “rider” is able to perform a regular full gainer dive. If so, “rider” executes a very high full gainer (easier in tuck position and more difficult but more effective in lay-out position) and spreads legs wide apart as body starts downward. The “horse” has delayed his approach until the gainer is almost complete before he dives into horizontal position between legs of rider. Shout of “Hi, Ho, Silver,” as they enter water completes dive.

Keywords: Sports, Water Sports, Skiing, Skin Diving, Scuba Diving, Kayak Surfing, Swimming